Korean language
The 'Korean language\' is spoken primarily and officially in Korea (South Korea and North Korea), also in the People's Republic of China (Yanbian). Worldwide, there are around 78 million Korean speakers, including large groups in the former Soviet Union, the United States, Canada, and Japan. Proper classification of Korean is not universally agreed on, but it is often considered by many to be a language isolate. Some linguistics also group it in Altaic family of languages.The native Korean writing system—called Hangul—is alphabetic and phonetic. Along with Sino-Korean characters (Hanja), well over 50% of the Korean vocabulary comes directly or indirectly from Chinese.
| Korean (한국말 [Hanguŋmal] or 조선말 [Chosʌnmal]) | |
|---|---|
| Spoken in: | Korea |
| Total speakers: | 78 Million |
| Ranking: | 10 |
| Genetic classification: | Disputed, considered variously as a language isolate or as an Altaic language |
| Official status | |
| Official language of: | North Korea South Korea |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-1: | ko |
| ISO 639-2: | kor |
| SIL: | KKN |
The written language, Hangul, was devised in 1446, under the decree of King Sejong.
In Korea, the possibility of Korean-Japanese linguistic relationship has been ignored mostly; the often strained relations between the two countries throughout history tend to make any discussion of a relationship between their languages a controversial one. However, the Korean relationship with Altaic and proto-Altaic also have been much argued as of late. It does bear some morphological resemblance to some languages of the Eastern Turkic group, namely, Yakut and some of its variants, and some linguists believe that Altaic itself forms part of a larger Ural-Altaic language family. The opponents of this view believe that much of the Altaic influences in the language was infused later in Korean history during the Mongol rule over Korea during the Goryeo dyansty.
Korean's seeming similarities to Chinese (of the Sino-Tibetan family), especially vocabulary and certain pronunciations, are superficial and not genetic. They occurred because of close and frequent contacts during the time of recorded history.
Although the naming and grouping of dialects is always changing as the study of dialects develops, here is a list of traditional dialect names and locations:
Names
"Korean" is not the name used by Korean speakers as the name of their language. The Korean names for Korean are:
History
Classification and related languages
Korean is often classified as being a separate language in a family of its own (a language isolate). In addition, most Korean and some Western linguists recognize Korean's kinship to the Altaic languages. On the other hand, traditional Western (since the 18th century) and many Japanese linguists believe that Korea has genetic relationship with Japanese.Geographic distribution
Dialects
Korean has several dialects (called mal (literally speech), bangeon, or saturi in Korean). The standard language (Pyojuneo or Pyojunmal) of South Korea is based on the dialect of the area around Seoul, and the standard for North Korea is based on the dialect spoken around Pyongyang. These dialects are similar, and in fact all dialects except that of Jeju (Cheju) Island are largely mutually intelligible. The dialect spoken there is classified as a different language by some Korean linguists. One of the most notable differences between dialects is the use of stress: speakers of Seoul Dialect use stress very little, and standard South Korean has a very flat intonation; on the other hand, speakers of Gyeongsang Dialect have a very pronounced intonation that makes their dialect sound more like a European language to western ears.
| Dialect | Where Used |
| Seoulmal | Seoul, Incheon, Gaeseong Cities, Gyeonggi |
| Gangwonmal | Gangwon |
| Hwanghaemal | Hwanghae |
| Pyeonganmal | Pyongyang, Nampo Cities, North/South Pyeongan, Jagang Provinces |
| Chungcheongmal | Daejeon City, North/South Chungcheong Provinces |
| Jeollamal | Gwangju City, North/South Jeolla Provinces |
| Gyeongsangmal | Busan, Daegu, Ulsan Cities, North/South Gyeongsang Provinces |
| Jejumal | Jeju Island/Province |
| Hamgyeongmal | Cheongjin, Najin-Seonbong Cities, North/South Hamgyeong, Yanggang Provinces |
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
| Stop | plain | p | t | c | k | |
| tensed | p’ | t’ | c’ | k’ | ||
| aspirated | ph | th | ch | kh | ||
| Fricative | plain | s | h | |||
| tensed | s’ | |||||
| Nasal | m | n | ŋ | |||
| Lateral approximant | l | |||||
Example words for consonants:
| phoneme | IPA | Romanized | English |
| p | pal | bal | 'foot' |
| p’ | p’al | ppal | 'sucking' |
| ph | phal | pal | 'arm' |
| m | mal | mal | 'horse' |
| t | tal | dal | 'moon' |
| t’ | t’al | ttal | 'daughter' |
| th | thal | tal | 'riding' |
| n | nal | nal | 'day' |
| c | cal | jal | 'well' |
| c’ | c’al | jjal | 'squeezing' |
| ch | chal | chal | 'kicking' |
| k | kal | gal | 'going' |
| k’ | k’al | kkal | 'spreading' |
| kh | khal | kal | 'knife' |
| ŋ | baŋ | bang | 'room' |
| s | sal | sal | 'flesh' |
| s’ | s’al | ssal | 'rice' |
| l | balam | baram | 'wind' |
| h | hal | hal | 'doing' |
[c], [cʰ], and [c'] have more frication than the other stops and are sometimes described as affricates.
The symbol [’] is used to denote the tensed consonants ([p’], [t’], [c’], [k’], and [s’]) but its official IPA usage is for ejective consonants, which the tensed stops in Korean are not. The tensed stops are produced with a partially constricted glottis and additional subglottal pressure.
| i | siˈɟaŋ | sijang | 'hunger' | iː | ˈsiːɟaŋ | sijang | 'market' |
| e | beˈɡɛ | begae | 'pillow' | eː | ˈbeːda | beda | 'to cut' |
| ɛ | tʰɛˈjaŋ | taeyang | 'sun' | ɛː | ˈtʰɛːdo | taedo | 'attitude' |
| a | ˈmal | mal | 'horse' | aː | ˈmaːl | mal | 'speech' |
| o | poˈli | bori | 'barley' | oː | ˈpoːsu | bosu | 'salary' |
| u | kuˈli | guri | 'copper' | uː | ˈsuːbak | subak | 'watermelon' |
| ʌ | ˈpʌl | beol | 'punishment' | ʌː | ˈpʌːl | beol | 'bee' |
| ɯ | ˈʌːlɯn | eoreun | 'seniors' | ɯː | ˈɯːmsik | eumsik | 'food' |
| wi | dwi | dwi | 'back' | ɯi' | ˈɯisa | uiza | 'doctor' | ||||
| je | ˈjeːsan | yesan | 'budget' | we | kwe | gwe | 'box' | ||||
| jɛ | ˈjɛːki | yaegi | 'story' | wɛ | wɛ | wae | 'why' | ||||
| ja | ˈjaːgu | yagu | 'baseball' | wa | kwaːˈil | kwa-il | 'fruits' | ||||
| jo | ˈkjoːs’a | gyosa | 'teacher' | ||||||||
| ju | juˈli | yuri | 'glass' | ||||||||
| jʌ | jʌːgi | yeogi | 'here' | wʌ | mwʌ | mwo | 'what' |
Source: Handbook of the International Phonetic Association
[h] becomes labialized [ɸ] before [o] and [u] and palatalized [ç] before [i] or [j]
[p], [t], [c], and [k] become voiced [b], [d], [ɟ], and [ɡ] between sonorant segments.
[l] becomes alveolar flap [ɾ] between sonorant segments, such as between two vowels.
Phonetic rules, mostly assimilation, transform the pronunciation of some words. For example,
Phonology
[s] becomes palatalized as [ʃ] or [ɕ] before [j] or [i].
Stop consonants are generally voiceless, but lightly aspirated stops become voiced and unaspirated in intervocalic position. For example,
Stops are nasalized before a nasal. For example,
One difference between the pronunciation standards of North and South Korea is the treatment of initial [r]. For example,
Hangul spelling does not reflect these assimilatory pronunciation rules, but rather maintains the underlying morphology.
Korean is an agglutinative language. Korean grammar is similar to that of the Japanese language. The basic form of a Korean sentence is Subject-Object-Verb (SOV), and modifiers precede the modified word.
Accordingly, whereas in English, one would say, "I'm going to the store to buy some food,” in Korean it would be: *"I food to-buy in-order-to store-to going-am."
In Korean, "unnecessary" words (see theme and rheme) can be left out of a sentence as long as the context makes the meaning clear.
A typical exchange might translate word-for word to the following:
Grammar
which in English would translate to:
Unlike Romance languages, Korean does not conjugate verbs using agreement with the subject, and nouns have no gender. Instead, verb conjugations depend upon the verb tense and on the relation between the people speaking.
When talking to or about friends, you would use one conjugate ending, to your parents, another, and to nobility/honoured persons, another.
This loosely echoes the T-V distinction of most Indo-European languages.
The relationship between a speaker or writer and his or her subject and audience is paramount in Korean, and the grammar reflects this. The relationship between speaker/writer and subject is reflected in honorifics, while that between speaker/writer and audience is reflected in speech level.
When talking about someone superior in status, a speaker or writer to use special nouns or verb endings to indicate the subject's superiority. Generally, someone is superior in status if he/she is an older distant relative (grandparent's sibling, older sibling's spouse, etc.), a stranger of roughly equal or greater age, or an employer, teacher, customer, or the like. Someone is equal or inferior in status if he/she is a close relative (grandparent, parent, spouse, or sibling), younger stranger, student, employee or the like. On rare occasions (like when someone wants to pick a fight), a speaker might speak to a superior or stranger in a way normally only used for, say, animals, but no one would do this without seriously considering the consequences to their physical safety first!
One way of using honorifics is to use special nouns in place of regular nouns with "honorific" ones. A common example is using jinji instead of bap for "food". More often, special nouns are used when speaking about relatives. Thus, the speaker/writer may address his own grandmother as halmeoni but refer to someone else's grandmother as halmeonim. (The m comes from the honorific suffix -nim (님), which is affixed to many kinship terms to make them honorific; thus, hyeongnim is the formal term for an older sibling of the same sex (derived from hyeong, the informal term for man's older brother; eonni is the informal term for a woman's older sister).
All verbs can be converted into an honorific form by adding the infix -si- (시, pronounced shi) after the stem and before the verb ending. Thus, gada ("go") becomes gasida. A few verbs have special honorific equivalents. Therefore gyesida is the honorific form of itda ("exist"); japsusida is the honorific form of meokda ("eat"); and jumusida is the honorific form of jada ("sleep").
A few verbs have special humble forms, used when the speaker is referring to him/herself in polite situations. These include deurida and ollida for juda ("give"). Deurida is substituted for juda when the latter is used as an auxiliary verb, while ollida--which literally means "raise up"--is used for juda in the sense of "offer".
Pronouns in Korean have their own set of polite equivalents: thus, jeo is the humble form of na ("I"); jeoheui is the humble form of uri ("we"); and dangsin ("friend," but only used as a form of address and more polite than "chingu", the usual word for "friend") is the honorific form of neo ("you" (singular)).
There are no fewer than 7 verb paradigms or speech levels in Korean, and each level has its own unique set of verb endings which are used to indicate the level of formality of a situation. Unlike honorifics--which are used to show respect towards a subject--speech levels are used to show respect towards a speaker's or writer's audience. The names of the 7 levels are derived from the non-honorific imperative form of the verb hada ("do") in each level, plus the suffix che, which means "body."
The highest 5 levels use final verb endings, while the lowest 2 levels (haeyoche) and (haeche) use non-final endings and are called banmal ("half-words") in Korean. (The haeyoche in turn is formed by simply adding the non-final ending yo (요) to the haeche form of the verb.)
Taken together, honorifics and speech levels form a cartesian product of 14 basic verb stems. Here is a table giving the 7 levels, the present indicative form of the verb hada (하다; "do" in English) in each level in both its honorific and non-honorific forms, and the situations in which each level is used.
Speech Levels and Honorifics
Honorifics
Speech Levels
| Speech Level | Non-Honorific Present Indicative of "hada" | Honorific Present Indicative of "hada" | Level of Formality | When Used |
| Hasoseoche (하소서체) | hanaida (하나이다) | hashinaida (하시나이다) | Extremely formal and polite | Traditionally used when addressing a king, queen, or high official; now only used in historical dramas and the Bible |
| Hapshoche (합쇼체) | hamnida (합니다) | hashimnida (하십니다) | Formal and polite | Used commonly between strangers, among male co-workers, by TV announcers, and to customers |
| Haoche (하오체) | hao (하오) | hasho (하쇼), hashio (하시오) | Formal, of neutral politeness | Only used nowadays among some older people; Samuel E. Martin's 1954 book Korean in a Hurry states that it was the form used by police officers when giving out traffic tickets! |
| Hageche (하게체) | hane (하네) | hashine (하시네) | Informal, of neutral politeness | Generally only used by some older people when addressing younger people, friends, or relatives |
| Haerache (해라체) | handa (한다) | hashinda (하신다) | Formal, of neutral politeness | Used to close friends, relatives of similar age, or younger people; also used almost universally in books, newspapers, and magazines; also used in reported speech ("She said that...") |
| Haeyoche (해요체) | haeyo (해요) | haseyo (하세요) (common), hasheoyo (하셔요) (rare) | Informal and polite | Used mainly between strangers, especially those older or of equal age. Traditionally used more by women than men, though in Seoul many men prefer this form to the Hapshoche (see above). |
| Haeche (해체) | hae (해) (in speech), hayeo (하여) (in writing) | hasheo(하셔) | Informal, of neutral politeness or impolite | Used most often between close friends and relatives, and when addressing younger people. It is never used between strangers unless the speaker wants to pick a fight. |
Vocabulary
The core of the Korean vocabulary is made up of native Korean words. More than 50% of the vocabulary, however, is made up of Sino-Korean words, which are derived from Chinese characters. Many of these words were borrowed from Chinese, although many modern-day scientific terms come from Japanese. To a much lesser extent, words have also been borrowed from Mongolian, Sanskrit, and other languages. In modern times, many words have also been borrowed from Western languages such as German and, more recently, English.
The numbers are a good example of borrowing. Like Japanese, Korean has two number systems—one native and one borrowed from the Chinese—so Korean, Chinese, Japanese, and some other languages such as Thai all appear to have similar words for numbers.
The Korean language was originally written using "Hanja", or Chinese characters; it is now mainly written in Hangul, the Korean alphabet, optionally mixing in Hanja to write Sino-Korean words. Hangul consists of 24 letters -- 14 consonants and 10 vowels that are written in blocks of 2 to 5 characters. Unlike the Chinese writing system (including Japanese Kanji), Hangul is not an ideographic system. The shapes of the individual Hangul letters were designed to model the physical morphology of the tongue, palate and teeth; up to five letters join to form a syllabic unit.
Below is a chart of the Korean alphabet's symbols and their canonical SAMPA values:
Writing system
Main article: Hangul
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(See also: Hangul consonant tables)
Modern Korean is written with spacess between words, a feature not found in the other CJK languages (Chinese and Japanese). Korean punctuation marks are almost identical to Western ones. Traditionally, Korean was written in columns from top to bottom, right to left, much as in other East Asian cultures. Korean is still sometimes written in columns (especially in poetry), but is now usually written in rows from left to right, top to bottom.
- See also
- Common phrases in different languages#Korean
- Romanization
- McCune-Reischauer
- Yale romanization
See also
Korean measure words
External links